Knowledge Retrieval is a field of study Science is, in its broadest sense, any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice that is capable of resulting in a correct prediction, or reliably-predictable type of outcome. In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique, technology, or practice, from which a good deal of randomness in outcome has been removed which seeks to return information in a structured form, consistent with human cognitive processes Cognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought" to knowing. Usage of the term varies in different disciplines; for example in psychology and cognitive science, it usually refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions. Other interpretations of the meaning of cognition link it to the as opposed to simple lists of data items. It draws on a range of fields including Epistemology Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions: (Theory of knowledge), Cognitive psychology The school of thought arising from this approach is known as cognitivism which is interested in how people mentally represent information processing. It had its foundations in the work of Wilhelm Wundt, Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who provided a theory of stages/phases, Cognitive neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both psychology and, Logic Logic, from the Greek λογικός is the study of reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activity, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. It is one kind of critical thinking. In and Inference The process by which a conclusion is inferred from multiple observations is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion may be correct or incorrect, or correct to within a certain degree of accuracy, or correct in certain situations. Conclusions inferred from multiple observations may be tested by additional observations, Machine learning Machine learning is a scientific discipline that is concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on empirical data, such as from sensor data or databases. A major focus of machine learning research is to automatically learn to recognize complex patterns and make intelligent decisions based and Knowledge discovery Knowledge discovery is a concept of the field of computer science that describes the process of automatically searching large volumes of data for patterns that can be considered knowledge about the data. It is often described as deriving knowledge from the input data. This complex topic can be categorized according to 1) what kind of data is, Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words, Information technology Information technology , as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware." IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to, etc.

Contents

Overview

In the field of retrieval systems, established approaches include:

These approaches both require a user to read and analyze often long lists of data sets or documents in order to extract meaning implicit in them.

The goal of knowledge retrieval systems is to reduce the burden of those processes by improved search and representation. This improvement is seen as needed to handle the increasing volumes of data available on the World Wide Web and elsewhere.

Many proposals and research efforts have been made regarding knowledge retrieval [1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11].

A Comparative Study of Data, Information and Knowledge Retrieval

Features and characteristics of Knowledge Retrieval may become clear by a comparison with Data Retrieval and Information Retrieval.

A Comparison of Data Retrieval, Information Retrieval, and Knowledge Retrieval (following discussion is mainly from [12])

Data Retrieval Information Retrieval Knowledge Retrieval
Match Boolean match partial match, best match partial match, best match
Inference deductive inference inductive inference deductive inference, inductive inference, associative reasoning, analogical reasoning
Model deterministic model statistical and probabilistic model semantic model, inference model
Query artificial language natural language knowledge structure, natural language
Organization table, index table, index knowledge unit, knowledge structure
Representation number, rule natural language, markup language concept graph, predicate logic, production rule, frame, semantic network, ontology
Storage database document collections knowledge base
Retrieved Results data set sections or documents a set of knowledge unit

Knowledge retrieval (KR) focuses on the knowledge level. We need to examine how to extract, represent, and use the knowledge in data and information [13]. Knowledge retrieval systems provide knowledge to users in a structured way. They are different from data retrieval systems and information retrieval systems in inference models, retrieval methods, result organization, etc. Table 1, extending van Rijsbergen’s comparison of the difference between data retrieval and information retrieval[14], summarizes the main characteristics of data retrieval, information retrieval, and knowledge retrieval[15]. The core of data retrieval and information retrieval are retrieval subsystems. Data retrieval gets results through Boolean match[16]. Information retrieval uses partial match and best match. Knowledge retrieval is also based on partial match and best match.

Considering inference perspective, data retrieval uses deductive inference A syllogism or logical appeal is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises) of a certain form, and information retrieval uses inductive inference[14]. Considering the limitations from the assumptions of different logics, traditional logic In philosophy, term logic, also known as traditional logic, is a loose name for the way of doing logic that began with Aristotle, and that was dominant until the advent of modern predicate logic in the late nineteenth century systems (e.g., Horn subset of first order logic First-order logic is a formal logic used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. It goes by many names, including: first-order predicate calculus, the lower predicate calculus, quantification theory, and predicate logic. First-order logic is distinguished from propositional logic by its use of quantifiers; each) cannot make efficient reasoning in a reasonable time [17]. Associative reasoning, analogical reasoning Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject to another particular subject (the target), and a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as opposed to deduction, induction, and abduction, where and the idea of unifying reasoning and search may be effective methods of reasoning at the web scale [17],[18].

From retrieval model perspective, knowledge retrieval systems focus on semantics and better organisation of information. Data retrieval and information retrieval organize the data and documents by indexing, while knowledge retrieval organize information by indicating connections between elements in those documents.

Frameworks for Knowledge Retrieval systems

From computer science Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that create, describe and transform information. According to Peter J perspective, In [19] a logic framework concentrating on fuzziness of knowledge queries has been proposed and investegated in details. In [3] some markup language A markup language is a system for annotating a text in a way which is syntactically distinguishable from that text. Examples include revision instructions by editors, traditionally written with a blue pencil on authors' manuscripts, typesetting instructions such those found in troff and LaTeX, and structural markers such as XML tags. Markup is for knowledge reasoning and relevant strategies are investigated, which can be considered as possible logic reasoning foundations for text based knowledge retrieval.

From cognitive science Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of how information is represented and transformed in the brain. It consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, learning sciences, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and education. It spans many levels of analysis, from low- perspective, especially from cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience perspective, In [20] and [21], the neurobiological basis for knowledge retrieval in the human brain The human brain is the center of the human nervous system and is a highly complex organ. Enclosed in the cranium, it has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times as large as the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size. Most of the expansion comes from the cerebral cortex, a convoluted layer is investigated, which serves as a cognitive model A cognitive model is an approximation to animal cognitive processes for the purposes of comprehension and prediction. Cognitive models can be developed within or without a cognitive architecture, though the two are not always easily distinguishable for knowledge retrieval.

Knowledge Retrieval related Disciplines

Knowledge retrieval can draw results from the following related theories and technologies[12]:

- Theory of Knowledge: knowledge acquisition, knowledge organization, knowledge representation Knowledge representation and reasoning is an area in artificial intelligence that is concerned with how to formally "think", that is, how to use a symbol system to represent "a domain of discourse" - that which can be talked about, along with functions that may or may not be within the domain of discourse that allow inference, knowledge validation, knowledge management.

- Cognitive Science: cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive informatics, concept formation and learning, decision making, human–computer interaction.

- Machine Learning and Knowledge Discovery: preprocessing, classification, clustering, prediction, postprocessing, statistical learning Vapnik-Chervonenkis theory was developed during 1960-1990 by Vladimir Vapnik and Alexey Chervonenkis. The theory is a form of computational learning theory, which attempts to explain the learning process from a statistical point of view theory.

- Logic and Inference: propositional logic In mathematical logic, a propositional calculus or logic is a formal system in which formulas of a formal language may be interpreted as representing propositions. A system of inference rules and axioms allows certain formulas to be derived, called theorems; which may be interpreted as true propositions. The series of formulas which is constructed, predicate logic, attribute logic, universal logic, inductive inference Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observations; for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. Solomonoff's theory attempts to be mathematically rigorous, deductive inference, associative reasoning, analogical reasoning, approximate reasoning.

- Information Technology: information theory Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of information. Historically, information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on compressing and reliably storing and communicating data. Since its inception it has broadened to find applications in many, information science Information science is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. Practitioners within the field study the application and usage of knowledge in organizations, along with the interaction between people, organizations and any, information retrieval, database systems, knowledge-based systems Knowledge based systems are artificial intelligent tools working in a narrow domain to provide intelligent decisions with justification. Knowledge is acquired and represented using various knowledge representation techniques rules, frames and scripts. The basic advantages offered by such system are documentation of knowledge, intelligent decision, rule-based systems, expert systems An expert system is software that attempts to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted. Expert systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional application and/or subfield of artificial intelligence. A wide variety of methods can be used, decision support systems Decision support systems constitute a class of computer-based information systems including knowledge-based systems that support decision-making activities, intelligent agent In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which observes and acts upon an environment (i.e. it is an agent) and directs its activity towards achieving goals (i.e. it is rational). Intelligent agents may also learn or use knowledge to achieve their goals. They may be very simple or very complex: a reflex machine such technology.

- Linguistics: computational linguistics Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical and/or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. This modeling is not limited to any particular field of linguistics. Traditionally, computational linguistics was usually performed by computer scientists who had specialized in the, natural language understanding, natural language processing Natural language processing is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages. Natural language generation systems convert information from computer databases into readable human language. Natural language understanding systems convert samples of human language into more.

Topics listed under each entry serve as examples and do not form a complete list. And many related disciplines should be added as the field grows mature.

References

  1. ^ Frisch, A.M. Knowledge Retrieval as Specialized Inference, Ph.D thesis, University of Rochester The University of Rochester is a private, nonsectarian, research university located in Rochester, New York. The University grants undergraduate, graduate, doctoral, and professional degrees through six schools and various interdisciplinary programs. The University is home to several noted schools and programs, including the number one ranked, 1986.
  2. ^ Kame, M. and Quintana, Y. A graph based knowledge retrieval system, Proceedings of the 1990 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1990: 269-275.
  3. ^ a b Martin, P. and Eklund, P.W. Knowledge retrieval and the World Wide Web, IEEE Intelligent Systems Intelligent Systems Co., Ltd. is a Japanese first-party video game developer and internal team of Nintendo Co., Ltd, 2000, 15(3): 18-25.
  4. ^ Oertel, P. and Amir, E. A framework for commonsence knowledge retrieval, Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Logic Formalizations of Commonsense Reasoning Commonsense reasoning is the branch of Artificial intelligence concerned with replicating human thinking. There are several components to this problem, including:, 2005.
  5. ^ Travers, M. A visual representation for knowledge structures, Proceedings of the 2nd annual ACM conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 1989: 147-158.
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  7. ^ Zhou, N., Zhang, Y.F. and Zhang, L.Y. Information Visualization Scientific visualization is an interdisciplinary branch of science according to Friendly (2008) "primarily concerned with the visualization of three dimensional phenomena (architectural, meteorological, medical, biological, etc.), where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps and Knowledge Retrieval [In Chinese], Science Press, 2005.
  8. ^ Robert Loew, Katrin Kuemmel, Judith Ruprecht, Udo Bleimann, Paul Walsh. Approaches for personalised knowledge retrieval, Internet Research Internet research is the practice of using the Internet, especially the World Wide Web, for research. To the extent that the Internet is widely and readily accessible to hundreds of millions of people in many parts of the world, it can provide practically instant information on most topics, and is having a profound impact on the way in which ideas, 17(1), 2007
  9. ^ Stefania Mariano, Andrea Casey. The process of knowledge retrieval: A case study A case study is one of several ways of doing research whether it is social science related or even socially related. It is an in-depth investigation/study of a single individual, group, incident, or community. Other ways include experiments, surveys, or analysis of archival information of an American high-technology In a search of New York Times articles, the last occurrence of the phrase "high tech" occurs in a 1950s story advocating "atomic energy" for Europe: "...Eastern Europe, with its dense population and its high technology..." The twelfth occurrence, in 1968, is, significantly, in a story about Route 128, described as research, engineering and consulting company. VINE: The journal of information and knowledge management Knowledge management comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an organisation to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organisational processes or practice systems, 37(3), 2007.
  10. ^ Jens Gammelgaard, Thomas Ritter. The knowledge retrieval matrix: codification and personification as separate strategies, Journal of Knowledge Management, 9(4), 133-143, 2005.
  11. ^ J.E.L. Farradane. Analysis and organization of knowledge for retrieval, Aslib Proceedings, 22(12), 607-616,1970.
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  13. ^ Bellinger, G., Castro, D. and Mills, A. Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom, http://www.systemsthinking.org/dikw/dikw.htm
  14. ^ a b van Rijsbergen, C.J. Information Retrieval, Butterworths, 1979.
  15. ^ Zeng, Y., Yao, Y.Y. and Zhong, N. Granular structurebased knowledge retrieval [In Chinese], Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the Seventh Conference of Rough Set A rough set, first described by Zdzisław I. Pawlak, is a formal approximation of a crisp set in terms of a pair of sets which give the lower and the upper approximation of the original set. In the standard version of rough set theory (Pawlak 1991), the lower- and upper-approximation sets are crisp sets, but in other variations, the approximating and Soft Computing Soft computing is a term applied to a field within computer science which is characterized by the use of inexact solutions to computationally-hard tasks such as the solution of NP-complete problems, for which an exact solution cannot be derived in polynomial time, the First Forum of Granular Computing, and the First Forum of Web Intelligence, 2007.
  16. ^ Baeza-Yates, R. and Ribeiro-Neto, B. Modern Information Retrieval, AddisonWesley, 1999.
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  18. ^ Berners-Lee, T., Hall, W., Hendler, J.A., O’Hara, K., Shadbolt, N. and Weitzner, D.J. A Framework for Web science, Foundations and Trends in Web Science, 2006, 1(1): 1-130.
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  20. ^ Tranel, Daniel, Damasio, Antonio. The neurobiology of knowledge retrieval. Behavioral and Brain Science, 22(2): 303-303, 1999.
  21. ^ Jennifer H. Pfeifer, Matthew D. Lieberman, Mirella Dapretto. “I Know You Are But What Am I?!”: Neural Bases of Self-and Social Knowledge Retrieval in Children and Adults, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(8), MIT Press The MIT Press is a university press affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts (USA), August 2007.
Computable knowledge
Topics and Concepts Alphabet of human thought The alphabet of human thought is a concept originally proposed by Gottfried Leibniz that provides a universal way to represent and analyze ideas and relationships, no matter how complicated, by breaking down their component pieces. All ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas which can be represented by a unique "real& • Automated reasoning • Commonsense reasoning • Computability • Formal system • Inference engine • Knowledge base • Knowledge-based systems • Knowledge discovery • Knowledge engineering • Knowledge representation • Knowledge retrieval • Logic programming • Ontology • Question answering • Semantic reasoner
Proposals and Implementations Zairja • Ars Magna (Ramon Llull, 1300) • An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language (John Wilkins, 1688) • Calculus ratiocinator & Characteristica universalis (Gottfried Leibniz, 1700) • Dewey Decimal Classification (Melvil Dewey, 1876) • Begriffsschrift (Gottlob Frege, 1879) • Mundaneum (Paul Otlet & Henri La Fontaine, 1910) • Logical atomism (Bertrand Russell, 1918) • Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1921) • Hilbert's program (David Hilbert, 1920s) • Incompleteness theorem (Kurt Gödel, 1931) • Memex (Vannevar Bush, 1945) • Prolog (1972) • Cyc (1984) • True Knowledge (2007) • Wolfram Alpha (Stephen Wolfram, 2009)
In fiction The Engine (Gulliver's Travels, 1726) • Joe (A Logic Named Joe, 1946) • The Librarian (Snow Crash, 1992) • Dr. Know (A.I. Artificial Intelligence, 2001) See also: Logic machines in fiction and List of fictional computers

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